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Invasive earthworms of North America
Invasive species of earthworms, specifically from the suborder Lumbricina, have migrated and spread through North America.〔Nico Eisenhauer, Stephan Partsch, Dennis Parkinson and Stefan Scheu. 2007. Invasion of a deciduous forest by earthworms: changes in soil chemistry, microflora, microarthropds, and vegetation. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39: 1099-110.〕 Their introduction is having drastic effects on the multiple nutrient cycles in temperate or temperate-coniferous forests. These earthworms increase the cycling and leaching of nutrients by breaking up decaying organic matter and spreading it into the soil. Since these northern forests rely on thick layers of decaying organic matter for growth and nutrition, they are diminishing in diversity and young plants struggle in these environments. Many species of trees and other plants may be incapable of surviving such drastic changes in available nutrients.〔Campbell, Neil A., and Jane B. Reece. 2009. Biology. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.〕 This change in the plant diversity directly affects the other organisms of the environment and often leads to increased invasions of other exotic species as well as overall temperate forest decline.
==Earthworms and migration==
Earthworms are from the suborder Lumbricina, and are primarily engineers of their environment. Earthworms are considered keystone species, since they alter many different variables of their ecosystem drastically since they are detritivores.〔 Lee E. Frelich, Cindy M. Hale, Stefan Scheu, Andrew R. Holdsworth, Liam Heneghan, Patrick J. Bohlen and Peter B. Reich. 2006. Earthworm invasion into previously earthworm-free temperate and boreal forests. Biological Invasions 8: 1235–245. 〕 Of the 182 taxa of earthworms found in the United States of America and Canada, 60 (33%) are invasive species.〔 Specifically, ''Lumbricus terrestris'', ''L. rubellus'', ''L. friendi'', ''Amynthas agrestis'', and ''Dendrobaena octaedra'' have been studied for their ability to invade previously uninhabited locations and disturb the local ecosystems.〔〔Blakemore, R. J. 2006. American Earthworms from North of the Rio Grande—a Species Checklist. Rep. Yokohama, Japan: YNU.〕 These earthworm species are primarily from Europe and Asia, and they are disturbing many nutrient cycles.〔 By redistributing nutrients, mixing soil layers, and creating pores in the soil, they can affect the characteristics of the soil important to the rest of the ecosystem. In addition, earthworms break up decomposing matter on the surface of the soil and carry or mix it into the surrounding soil, often carrying some of the nutrients deeper into the soil, where saplings and other young plants have trouble reaching them.〔Bohlen, Patrick J., Derek M. Pelletier, Peter M. Groffman, Timothy J. Fahey, and Melany C. Fisk. 2004. Influence of earthworm invasion on redistribution and retention of soil carbon and nitrogen in northern temperate forests. Ecosystems 7: 13–27. 〕 The earthworms are migrating north into forests between 45° and 60° latitude in North America.〔
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